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Management Systems in Africa

African Renaissance Management Systems

It is difficult to turn the clock back to pre-colonial times, but it may be possible to more fully integrate African principles in the management of organizations, not least to reconcile the contradictions between work and home/community life.

Ubuntu

It may be somewhat idealistic to try to identify a particular African style or even philosophy of management (e.g. Human, 1996), but it is worth pointing to aspects that it may include, so that in empirical studies those aspects may be discerned where they do exist.  Most of the impetus for a return to African values and indigenous knowledge systems has been from South Africa, through the suggestion for a movement towards an African Renaissance (e.g. Makgoba, 1999). In 1991 Koopman published his book about Cashbuild, a company which was built up on the basis of  ‘transcultural’ principles, which attempted to ‘match the values of a community with an appropriate form of management and organization’ (Koopman, 1991: 89). This involved reconciling what he called ‘individualism’ and ‘communalism’. Mbigi (1997; Mbigi and Maree, 1995) has more specifically set about defining and elaborating the management philosophy of Ubuntu, which is based on this sense of community. This approach should be regarded as an ‘ideal type’, which may be discerned as a conscious approach to management in some African organizations, and probably one that is a not as developed (historically) as post-colonial or post-instrumental systems.

African Principles

A useful framework in discussing what an African Renaissance management system may look like is provided by the work of Binet (1970) on African economic psychology. Dia (1996) provides an account of this work. This can be supplemented and supported by popular African management texts (Boon, 1996; Mbigi and Maree, 1995; and Mbigi, 1997), as well as specific anthropological work (such as that of Gelfand, 1973, which is used here to illustrate specific aspects by reference to Shona values in Zimbabwe). Key values can be summarized as follows.

Sharing

A need for security in the face of hardship has provided a commitment to helping one another. However, it is likely that this value is not based on simple exchange, but as a result of a network of social obligations based predominantly on kinship. More recently the concept of ubuntu has been prominent in the South African popular management literature, a value that is built on the assumption that people are only people through other people. Mbigi (1997) for example suggests that collective trust is a large part of this value that should be developed in organizations before participation and empowerment initiatives can succeed. Certainly Gelfand (1973) suggests that trust (ruvimbo) is seen as an important virtue in Shona culture. Openness, sharing and welcome together form important components of ubuntu (Boon,1996). These aspects are reflected in a wider community stakeholder orientation which also includes elements of family and other outside involvement, and a character that involves the development and well-being of its people, with a general people orientation, and a sense of belongingness, trust and openness.

Deference to Rank

Dia’s (1996) assertion that this refers to power distance, particularly within the organizational context between employer and employee is probably rather simplistic. Although traditional rulers were such by their title to the senior lineage, they had to earn the respect of their followers, and rule by consensus. Political decision-making was through obtaining consensus, and through a system of checks and balances against autocratic rule. People were free to express opinions and dissension (Mbigi, 1997). At the same time taking one’s proper place in the social scale (kuzvipeta in Shona) is an important aspect of the virtue of humility (kuzvidukupisa), and refers not only to deference to rank and seniority, but also to the senior person showing humility towards the younger person, and to the educated person not looking down on those less educated (Gelfand, 1997). This is reflected in a control that involves benign rules of action, and promotion based on the legitimisation of status (reflecting management principles based on both a status and achievement orientation).

Sanctity of Commitment

Commitment and mutual obligations stems from group pressures to meet one’s promises, and to conform to social expectations. This is reflected in obligations to stakeholders, for example in the external policies, as well as commitment to the group.

Regard for Compromise and Consensus

This certainly involves the maintenance of harmony within the social context, but also qualifies a deference to rank discussed above. Boon (1996) for example summarises the main characteristics of traditional African leadership by saying that the chief personifies the unity of the tribe and must live the values of his community in an exemplary way; not being an autocrat the chief must rely on representatives of the people, councillors to assist him (chiefs were and are male), to be guided by consensus. Failure to do so would result in his people ignoring his decisions and law. The people are strongly represented with a duty to attend court hearings, and all have a responsibility to each other, collectively to ensure the laws are upheld. As a result of this collective responsibility everyone has a right to question in open court. The concept of openness is an important value and implies that no one should receive retribution for anything said correctly in an open forum. If this is a latter day idealization of consensual authority, it was certainly a perception of early anthropologists working in Southern Africa (see for example Gluckman, 1956). This is reflected in structures that have flatter and more accessible hierarchies, consensus seeking decision making, and internal climate of participation and openness, and protection of rights. Management practice also reflect a participative, egalitarian and open approach.

Good Social and Personal Relations

This stems from many of the aspects discussed above, particularly the commitment to social solidarity. Dia (1996) observes that the tensions of management-labour relations that have been a feature in African organizations can be attributed largely to a lack of a human dimension and the adversarial attitudes of colonial employment relations. This is reflected in an internal climate of inter-ethnic harmony (although group solidarity may also act against this as will be discussed under), and other aspects of people orientation generally, and a humanistic orientation.

Away from a Pejorative View of African Management

This presents a different picture to that of Blunt and Jones (although this is partially recognized by them: 1997) and other commentators on organizational management in African countries. Both this view, and an idealized view of what African management could have been (without colonial interference) is probably too simplistic as has been stated above.  With the increase in interest in African approaches to management as indicated in the South African popular management press mentioned above, and the general call for a renaissance of African thinking, values, education and political transformation (Makgoba, 1999), any description of management systems within Africa should include a consideration of an ‘indigenous’ African management.

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